Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

Fluid intelligence (Gf) is defined as reasoning power, and the ability to generate, transform, and dispense dissimilar types of novel information in real time.

From: Aging and Determination Making , 2015

Assessment

Alan S. Kaufman , Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger , in Comprehensive Clinical Psychology, 1998

4.08.iii.5 DTLA-3 Integration with Wechsler Scales

The DYLA-3 has several theoretical underpinnings, including models such equally fluid and crystallized intelligence, simultaneous and successive processes, and verbal and performance abilities. DTLA-three subtests may be used to augment the Wechsler scales in several instances. To farther assess perceptual system ability, fluid power, and simultaneous processing, Design Reproduction or Symbolic Relations may be administered. For hypotheses regarding similar fluid abilities, simply tapping sequential processing, examiners may administrate Design Sequences. DTLA-iii Blueprint Reproduction is as well a good supplement Wechsler Functioning subtests if there is a question regarding a person's power beingness hampered past response speed tests. This test does crave visual-motor coordination but places minimal demands on speeded functioning. Like the K-ABC, the DTLA-three offers some culling modalities of receiving input and expression of response to supplement Wechsler subtests that mainly use the auditory-vocal and visual-motor channels of communication. The DTLA-iii offers 2 subtests which call for use of the visual and vocal modalities (Story Construction and Motion-picture show Fragments), and has ane subtest that uses the auditory-motor channel (Reversed Letters).

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Neuropsychological Battery Patterns

Elbert W. Russell , in The Scientific Foundation of Neuropsychological Assessment, 2022

Fluid and Crystallized Outcome

Another generalized upshot of brain damage is that produced past fluidity or the deviation between fluid and crystallized intelligence ( Cattell, 1963; Russell 1986, pp. 63–64).This was thoroughly discussed previously and demand not be discussed hither. Nonetheless, annotation that there has been a general and long-accepted concept that brain harm produces a tendency for the private to shift from abstract to concrete thinking (Goldstein & Scheerer, 1941; Walsh, 1978). This effect may, in fact, represent a tendency for brain-damaged individuals to alter from a more fluid form of thinking to a more than crystallized form (Russell, 1986, p. 60). Because crystallized intelligence remains more intact, it is a more than reliable ways of dealing with problems when the encephalon'due south operation is impaired.

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Handbook of Sleep Inquiry

van den Berg N.H. , ... Fogel S. , in Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience, 2022

II Sleep Oscillations and Cognitive Abilities

A NREM Sleep

Among the most influential and longest-standing theoretical models of intelligence is Raymond B. Cattel's concept of fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence (Carroll, 1993; Cattell, 1963; Cattell & Horn, 1978), which includes the common supposition that intelligence tin can be more accurately described every bit a subset of factors consisting of distinct cerebral domains and skills. Particularly, compelling neuropsychological support for this model of intelligence has relied on functional neuroimaging to delineate factors based on activation of distinct neural networks in response to increasing demands across a wide variety of tasks adapted from classic neuropsychological tests (Hampshire, Highfield, Parkin, & Owen, 2022 ). Interestingly, 2 of the main data-driven, activation-derived factors across 12 cognitive tasks in a large (N = 44,600) sample, synonymously termed "reasoning" and "verbal" abilities, map onto Cattel's concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence, providing support that these trait-like cognitive abilities are supported by distinct neural substrates.

The sleep spindle is the but known spontaneous neural oscillation that has been identified as an electrophysiological marking of cognitive abilities and aptitudes that are typically assessed by intelligence caliber (IQ) tests (for review, see Fogel & Smith, 2022). Every bit one of the defining features of NREM2 sleep, spindles are traditionally defined as neural oscillations between xi and 16 Hz (Iber, Ancoli-Israel, Chesson, & Quan, 2007) and lasting upward to ~   3 seconds in duration (Rechtschaffen & Kales, 1968). Spindles are remarkably stable from dark to dark but vary considerably from ane individual to another and have even been suggested to be an "electrophysiological fingerprint" (De Gennaro, Ferrara, Vecchio, Curcio, & Bertini, 2005), due to the trait-similar nature of spindles (Silverstein & Levy, 1976). Previous studies accept revealed that interindividual differences in spindle characteristics are related to the capacity for reasoning, that is, the ability to identify complex patterns and relationships, the utilize of logic, existing knowledge, skills, and experience to solve novel problems (Fogel & Smith, 2006; Fogel, Smith, & Cote, 2007; Nader & Smith, 2001, 2003). Moreover, the relationship between spindles and cerebral abilities is predominantly specific to the capacity for reasoning and not verbal abilities or short-term memory (Fang, Ray, Owen, & Fogel, 2022; Fogel, Nader, Cote, & Smith, 2007), suggesting that spindles are heavily involved in fluid intelligence as reflected through the chapters to place and solve novel, logical problems. Together, these studies take provided insight into the electrophysiological correlates of reasoning abilities, insofar as they suggest that efficient functioning of the neural substrates that back up spindle generation (e.grand., thalamocortical circuitry) may be related to the capacity for these cognitive skills. Interestingly, spindle generation is reduced with age (Carrier, Country, Buysse, Kupfer, & Monk, 2001; Fogel et al., 2022, 2022) and is abnormal in developmental disorders such every bit autism (Limoges, Mottron, Bolduc, Berthiaume, & Godbout, 2005), learning disabilities (Shibagaki, Kiyono, & Watanabe, 1982), and schizophrenia (Wamsley et al., 2022). Thus, a amend understanding of the neural basis of the relationship between spindles and cognitive abilities may ultimately help to meliorate understand the significance for a variety of normal and abnormal cognitive operation in healthy individuals and in neurological conditions. This may eventually lead to novel interventions to precisely target cases where spindle product is abnormal or nonoptimal. All the same, it is necessary to first understand the physiological mechanisms of the relationship between spindles and reasoning abilities in healthy individuals.

The association between slumber spindles and individual differences in cognitive abilities has been well documented past a number of dissimilar research groups. For instance, both the number of slumber spindles and sigma ability (12–14 Hz) have been uniquely correlated with performance IQ scores, but not exact IQ (Fogel, Nader, et al., 2007). Consistently, Bódizs et al. (2005) found that spindle density was correlated with reasoning abilities (i.eastward., "fluid intelligence"), measured by Raven's Progressive Matrices. Similar studies identified a positive correlation between right-parietal fast spindles and visuospatial abilities assessed by the Rey-Osterrieth complex effigy test (Bódizs, Lázár, & Rigó, 2008) and a positive correlation betwixt spindles and the intellectual abilities measured by the Cattell culture off-white intelligence examination, specifically in women, but non men (Ujma et al., 2022). Even so, a like relationship in men was afterwards identified in daytime sleep by the same group (Ujma et al., 2022). Well-nigh recently, Fang and colleagues (Fang, Sergeeva, et al., 2022) used the Cambridge Brain Sciences (CBS) exam battery (Hampshire et al., 2022) to explore if the relationship between sleep spindles and intellectual ability was a direct relationship or whether it could be partially (or fully) explained by other spindle-related factors such every bit sleep quality or cyclic chronotype. Fang and colleagues found that the relationship betwixt spindles and reasoning abilities was independent of sleep quality and circadian chronotype (Fang, Sergeeva, et al., 2022). Taken together, these studies support the notion that slumber spindles are an electrophysiological marker of cerebral abilities, specifically the ability to solve bug using logic and reasoning.

At the same fourth dimension, the neuroanatomical and neurophysiological mechanisms that mediate the human relationship between spindles and reasoning abilities are largely unknown. Only a small-scale number of EEG-fMRI studies take explored the patterns of brain activation that are associated with spindle generation (Andrade et al., 2022; Caporro et al., 2022; Laufs, Walker, & Lund, 2007; Schabus et al., 2007; Tyvaert, Levan, Grova, Dubeau, & Gotman, 2008). Interestingly, some of the brain regions that were identified in this work are likewise known to support reasoning abilities. For example, in a preliminary report, we recently identified neural activation patterns that are fourth dimension-locked with spindles and correlate with cerebral abilities (Fang, Sergeeva, et al., 2022). Using simultaneous EEG-fMRI slumber recordings, activations time-locked to spindles were observed in the thalamus, bilateral striatum, middle cingulate cortex, and cerebellum. Further, reasoning abilities were correlated with spindle-related activations in the thalamus, bilateral striatum, medial frontal gyrus, eye cingulate cortex, and precuneus. These results were specific to spindles and cannot be attributed to some epiphenomena during NREM slumber, given that these results were not observed when random onsets during NREM sleep were used instead of onsets time-locked to spindle events. Together, these results identified, for the first time, the neural correlates of the human relationship between spindles and reasoning abilities. Thus, spindles may serve as an electrophysiological marker of brain activations in brain regions that back up the ability to employ reasoning to solve issues and use logic in novel situations.

B REM Slumber

Every bit discussed above, in that location is a wealth of support suggesting that sleep spindles are electrophysiological markers of cerebral abilities, specially of fluid intelligence. Yet, the investigation of these phenomena has been highly focused on spindles, and very few studies accept looked more broadly at other stages of sleep or boosted features of NREM sleep. Still, at to the lowest degree a handful of studies provide some provocative back up for the notion that interindividual differences in REM sleep might relate to trait-similar cognitive abilities as well. Smith, Nixon, and Nader (2004) found that postlearning operation on procedural tasks that tap into reasoning skills was correlated with REM density. Interestingly, this relationship was strongest in individuals with loftier IQ scores. In a split written report (Fogel, Nader, et al., 2007), in individuals with a high IQ (i.e., reasoning/performance IQ scores from 115 to 126, compared with medium 108–114 and depression 77–107 IQ scores), rapid eye movements were correlated with crystallized intelligence, simply not fluid intelligence. This suggests a double dissociation for the relationship between spindles in NREM sleep and middle movements in REM sleep for fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence, respectively. I of the earliest studies establishing this link (De Koninck, Lorrain, Christ, Proulx, & Coulombe, 1989) found that, during a period of intensive 2d-language learning, individuals who progressed the fastest experienced incorporations into REM-based dreams earlier and experienced more than exact communication in their dreams compared with those who made little progress. Taken together, these studies are consistent with the notion that there is a relationship between cerebral abilities and specific features of REM sleep, particularly for exact abilities. However, this intriguing stardom remains to be fully explored.

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Intelligence: Historical and Conceptual Perspectives

East. Hunt , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

four.1 The Individual Level

At the individual level, it becomes important to distinguish between physical and social causes of cognitive competence, and between fluid and crystallized intelligence (Gc and Gf). People who perform well on tests of fluid intelligence and reasoning are, to a very large extent, people who are practiced at keeping track of several things at once, and who can manage fairly large amounts of information. This ability is known equally an ability to manage 'working retentiveness' for information relevant to the problem currently being worked on. It is assorted with 'long-term memory,' which refers to retention for information about how the globe works and information about biographic events that happened some time ago. Working memory, in turn, appears to be related to the performance of the frontal and prefrontal areas of the brain. There is now a good deal of evidence suggesting (but non yet proving) that individual differences in the ability to activate data in these areas of the brain is related to scores on tests of fluid intelligence. Just what these relations are, and how they relate to private differences in neural operation in other parts of the brain, is an important topic in research on intelligence.

While individual differences in fluid intelligence are related to individual differences in encephalon functioning, information technology is important non to exaggerate the human relationship. Statistical analyses suggest that individual differences in encephalon functioning tin account for only a part of the wide individual differences in the power to bargain with 'new and unusual problems,' that is, fluid intelligence. By default, the remaining influences must exist social (e.g., education, early training that might prepare a particular style for problem solving), but as of this article psychologists have been unable to make up one's mind what these environmental influences are.

The situation is quite different for tests of crystallized intelligence, that is, the ability to recognize and apply previously acquired solutions to new situations. In function this ability appears to depend upon generalized pattern-recognition abilities in the brain. However, information technology is also extremely responsive to teaching and training. This is seen almost clearly by studies of expertise, private differences in solving problems within a particular domain. Written report after study has shown that specialized problem-solving depends upon the conquering of schematic forms of reasoning appropriate to the domain at hand. Furthermore, these schema are very largely caused by extensive exercise. This has been shown in domains as far apart as chess, physics, and economics. Fluid intelligence appears to exist one determinant of how efficiently data tin be acquired during the schema-acquisition menstruum. (This may partially account for the correlation between measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence.) Even so, knowledge builds on noesis, then soon the expert has an reward over the novice in learning how to learn within a detail field. Whether or not there is a generalized ability to learn to acquire, regardless of the field being studied, is an open question. If there is, this ability is probably quite closely related to fluid intelligence.

Every bit would be expected, any influence that causes a deterioration of brain structure is likely to have a deleterious effect on intelligence. In modern industrialized guild alcoholism is undoubtedly the biggest unmarried effect; repeated studies have shown a negative correlation between excessive alcohol employ and intelligence examination performance. One time over again, whether or not this is causal is hard to decide, equally excessive alcohol use could either produce or be produced past low intelligence. However, the effect can be transgenerational. A major cause of mild mental retardation in children is excessive alcohol use past the female parent during pregnancy. Other negative influences on intelligence include prolonged malnutrition (primarily in the developing nations) and exposure to atmospheric pb.

Crumbling has a paradoxical effect on intelligence. Fluid intelligence test scores drop. This is not surprising, equally there is considerable evidence for an historic period-related drop in performance in tasks involving working retentivity. However there are very large private differences in the extent of the drib. If we compare the fluid intelligence test scores of otherwise comparable individuals in their 20s and 60s we find that the top scores of the older group are only slightly below the tiptop scores of the younger examinees, only the lowest scores in the older group are considerably beneath the lowest scores in the younger examinees.

Crystallized intelligence, in the sense of scores on such things as vocabulary and knowledge tests, may rise slightly during the developed working years, and declines simply slowly until people attain their 70s or across. Because nosotros live in a specialized society this may actually underestimate the abilities of older people. People go quite competent in those things that they do, so during their working years people may become 'cognitive specialists' in the tasks that they encounter every day. Mayhap for this reason, full general cognitive tests, such as the Department of Labor's Full general Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), seem to underestimate the out-of-laboratory performance of older workers. Of class, these statements utilize just then long as the workplace and social environments remain the aforementioned.

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Crumbling and Education

Southward.L. Willis , J.A. Margrett , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

2.i Age-related Changes in Knowledge

A well-established arroyo to the study of adult cognitive ability has been the examination of college-order dimensions of psychometric mental abilities, peculiarly fluid and crystallized intelligence (Horn and Hofer 1992). Fluid intelligence refers to abilities needed for abstract reasoning and speeded operation whereas crystallized intelligence refers to knowledge caused through 1's culture including verbal ability and social knowledge (Schaie 1996).

Longitudinal enquiry examining cognitive development has revealed that mental abilities vary in their developmental trajectories across adulthood (e.g., the Seattle Longitudinal Report: Schaie 1996, the Berlin Aging Study: Smith and Baltes 1999). A substantial torso of inquiry in the USA has demonstrated that fluid abilities, such every bit inductive reasoning, top in early eye machismo rather than in boyhood equally previously thought. Fluid abilities remain stable in middle historic period and commencement show reliable decline in the mid-sixties. In contrast, crystallized abilities, such as vocabulary, practise not peak until middle age and bear witness reliable decline later in the mid-seventies (Schaie 1996). Like developmental trajectories in abilities have been reported in Canadian and European longitudinal inquiry (Backman 2001).

Turn down in cerebral ability prior to age 60 is usually considered to be associated with ensuing pathological changes, and universal decline on all markers of intelligence in normal elderly is not axiomatic even by the eighties (Schaie 1996). Findings from Swedish longitudinal study demonstrate that even the oldest-quondam (i.e., a sample of individuals aged 84 and older), who do not exhibit cerebral impairment at baseline assessment, demonstrate relative stability over a two-twelvemonth menstruum on several markers of cognitive ability (Johansson et al. 1992).

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Geriatric Neuropsychological Assessment

John L. Woodard , in Handbook of Assessment in Clinical Gerontology (Second Edition), 2022

Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT; Kaufman & Kaufman, 1993, 1997)

The KAIT was adult as an individually administered intelligence test for persons between the ages of 11 and 85 years and older. It was based on an integration of the fluid and crystallized intelligence model ( Horn & Cattell, 1966, 1967; Horn, 1985, 1989), as well as aspects of Piaget's theory of formal operations (Piaget, 1972) and Luria's neuropsychological concepts of planning ability (Luria, 1980). The integration of multiple theories of intelligence and cognitive processing lends considerable appeal to this measure out.

The KAIT yields Fluid, Crystallized, and Composite IQs with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of xv. A sixty-minute Core Battery may be administered, or additional data (including delayed recall) may exist obtained by administering a xc-minute Expanded Battery. The Expanded Bombardment is typically recommended for use with older adults, given the presence of the boosted neuropsychological components in the bombardment. The normative sample consisted of 2000 adolescents and adults between the ages of 11 and 94 years. The upper age grouping includes 100 persons between the ages of 75 and 94 years (65 females and 35 males), a group that spans nearly 2 decades. The lack of more age-specific normative data in the upper end of the age spectrum is potentially problematic. Yet, age-related differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence beyond the lifespan are observed in the normative data for the KAIT (Kaufman & Kaufman, 1997). Crystallized intelligence abilities increased or remained the same through 50 years of historic period and did not brainstorm to decline until ages 75 and older. Fluid intelligence abilities reached a meridian effectually xx years of age followed past a plateau between 20 and 50 years of age, and ending with a drop in ability after 55 years of age.

The subtests of the KAIT are generally quite novel and are unlike many cognitive measures routinely used in clinical exercise. The Crystallized IQ scale is made upwardly of iv subtests: Definitions; Auditory Comprehension; Double Meanings; and Famous Faces. The Definitions subtest assesses noesis of discussion meanings. It presents several letters of the target word, forth with blanks indicating several other missing messages. In add-on, a clue nigh the word's meaning is presented, and the examinee must use the configuration of the word along with the clue to identify the target discussion. Auditory Comprehension requires listening to a recording of a news story so answering questions nigh the story. Double Meanings presents two sets of word clues, and the examinee must find a word that is closely related to both word clues. Famous Faces, an alternate subtest, involves identifying the names of famous individuals based on a photograph and a verbal clue.

The Fluid Calibration includes four subtests. Rebus Learning requires the examinee to associate a word or concept with various rebus drawings. "Sentences" of rebuses are so presented, and the examinee must translate the judgement using only the rebuses. Logical Steps involves logical reasoning skills based on visual and auditory premises. Based on the bounds given, the examinee must respond to a series of questions by applying logical reasoning skills. Mystery Codes requires the examinee to identify specific codes associated with a flick and then deduce a code for a novel picture based on the preceding codes and pictures. This task involves a timed component. Memory for Block Designs is an alternate subtest for the Fluid Scale. An abstract design is briefly presented to the examinee and subsequently removed. The examinee must recall the design and reproduce information technology using vi cubes. This mensurate is as well timed.

Additional subtests include Rebus Delay Recall and Auditory Delayed Think. These measures assess the ability to recall the previously learned rebuses after 45 minutes and the power to recall the previously presented news story later on 25 minutes, respectively.

Despite its first-class initial normative information, at that place do not appear to exist revised normative data bachelor to reflect changing census demographics. The measure consists of a number of novel, theoretically based tests, merely unfortunately, relatively few research studies have employed the KAIT. The integration between cess of both intellectual and neuropsychological abilities is highly highly-seasoned, particularly for older adults. Updated normative data and/or a revised version of the KAIT may enhance its utility in the time to come. Still, consideration should be given to the KAIT in inquiry settings where assessment of fluid and crystallized intellectual skills are of interest.

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Measures of the Trait of Confidence

Lazar Stankov , ... Simon A. Jackson , in Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Constructs, 2022

Results and Comments

Much of the work employing conviction ratings to assess online judgments of accuracy has been carried out with cognitive tests. In our empirical piece of work, nosotros take employed virtually all types of cognitive tests used in studies of fluid (Gf) and crystallized (Gc) intelligence (run into Carroll, 1993). These included measures of higher mental processes, such as retentivity, creative and critical thinking, and perceptual tests from visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic and movement/sport, olfactory and gustatory modalities. Perceptual tests, similar the Line Length exam (Kleitman & Stankov, 2001; Stankov, Pallier et al., 2022) can be used in studies of developmental changes during childhood since measures of Gf and Gc may exist much more sensitive to age-related changes during childhood.

Although psychometric properties of online measures of confidence are satisfactory, some educational psychologists take been reluctant to embrace their employ. A common reason appears to be the perceived close temporal proximity between the cognitive activeness of solving a problem and conviction in the accurateness of the solution itself. It seems that those holding such views neglect to capeesh empirical bear witness showing that typical correlations of .40 to .sixty between accuracy and confidence are like in size to the correlations between measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence and that a separate confidence factor has been repeatedly reported (east.g., Stankov, 2000).

Beneath we present two scale examples employing different online measures of conviction. The starting time, the Proverbs Matching Exam – a subtest of the Stankov Test of Cerebral Ability (STOCA) battery that measures both crystallized and fluid intelligence – uses a discrete, categorical, numerical scale (Stankov & Dolph, 2000). The second, the Future Life Events Calibration (Kleitman, 2008; Kleitman & Stankov, 2007), employs a discrete verbal calibration based on Sureness, rather than conviction itself. The sureness calibration is presented here in guild to illustrate that cerebral processing may be minimal, and notwithstanding the validity of the Sureness scale is comparable to the online assessment used in the Proverbs Matching Exam.

Proverbs Matching Test

Directions:

In this test you will be given proverbs. Your task is to choose a saying that is the closest in meaning to the first. Here is an instance:

'Birds of a feather flock together.'

(a)

Opposites attract

(b)

Tell me what visitor you keep and I volition tell yous who you are

(c)

In that location is lilliputian friendship in the earth and to the lowest degree of all betwixt equals

(d)

To check an elephant, inspect its tail

(due east)

Shared joy is doubled joy

In this example the correct answer is (b) since 'Tell me what visitor you lot keep and I will tell y'all who you are' is closer in meaning to the 'Birds of a plumage flock together' than any other alternative answer.

Later on each particular yous will be asked to state how confident you are that your reply is correct. A guess corresponds closely to 0% confidence and then you should give this equally your rating. Accented certainty corresponds to 100% confidence. Please brand your choice from the ratings provided on the sheet. Please work as apace and accurately as you can.

1.

The truth is immortal, but the man who tells the truth volition become dead.

•

Truth lies at the lesser of a well.

•

Better a lie that heals than a truth that wounds.

•

Ane is always wrong, only with two, truth begins.

•

Truth is mighty and volition prevail.

•

The truth of a word depends on how you empathize it.

How confident are you that your answer is correct?

20% xxx% xl% fifty% 60% 70% fourscore% 90% 100%
two.

A fisherman of shallow seas uses a short line; a fisherman of deeper seas uses a long line.

•

No bird soars also loftier, if she soars with her own wings.

•

Those who say it cannot exist done are usually interrupted by others doing information technology.

•

You volition only accomplish equally far as y'all aim and prepare yourself to reach.

•

Vision is not seeing things as they are, but as they will be.

•

1 can never consent to creep when one feels an impulse to soar.

How confident are you that your reply is correct?

twenty% thirty% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
three.

Empty vessels brand the nearly sound.

•

Tall trees oft have shallow roots.

•

Nevertheless waters run deep.

•

A tiger hides its claws.

•

Improve to remain silent and be thought a fool than to speak out and remove all doubt.

•

If the beard were all, goats might preach.

How confident are you that your answer is correct?

20% xxx% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% xc% 100%
iv.

Virtue is its own advantage

•

Some ascension by sin, others past virtue fall.

•

There are no fans in hell.

•

In social life, we please more than often past our vices than our virtues.

•

Be good and you will be lonesome.

•

Virtue is goodness, not material or money.

How confident are you that your answer is right?

xx% 30% twoscore% 50% 60% 70% 80% ninety% 100%
5.

The journeying of a m miles begins with one step.

•

To travel hopefully is ameliorate than to make it.

•

Traveler, at that place is no trail: you lot bonfire the trail every bit you travel.

•

A man travels the world over in search of what he needs and returns abode to find it.

•

One may non achieve the dawn save past the path of night.

•

He who is outside the door already has a expert function of the trip behind him.

How confident are you that your answer is correct?

xx% 30% xl% l% 60% 70% fourscore% 90% 100%
six.

Better to understand little than to misunderstand a lot.

•

The difference between genius and stupidity is that genius has its limits.

•

The opinion of the intelligent is improve than the certainty of the ignorant.

•

A not bad many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudices.

•

What he doesn't know would make a library anybody would be proud of.

•

It isn't what a human being doesn't know that makes him a fool, but what he does know that isn't so.

How confident are you that your answer is right?

20% thirty% twoscore% 50% 60% 70% lxxx% 90% 100%
7.

A careless lookout invites the thief.

•

A full loving cup must exist carried steadily.

•

A greedy middle never got a expert deal.

•

He that shows his purse longs to be rid of it.

•

Everyone carries a fool under his glaze, just some hibernate information technology better than others.

•

Great possessions depend on fate; small possessions come from diligence.

How confident are you lot that your answer is correct?

20% 30% xl% 50% 60% 70% eighty% xc% 100%
8.

Silence is one great art of conversation

•

Silence is the only thing that can't be misquoted.

•

When the mouth stumbles, information technology is worse than the foot.

•

When you are arguing with an idiot, brand certain the other person isn't doing the same affair.

•

Silence is the ultimate weapon of power.

•

You tin win more friends with your ear than you lot can with your rima oris.

How confident are you that your respond is correct?

xx% 30% twoscore% 50% sixty% lxx% 80% xc% 100%
9.

The smallest leak sinks the largest transport.

•

A chain is just equally strong equally its weakest link.

•

Do not draw your sword to kill a gnat.

•

The fish which you did not catch is always big.

•

The bullpen goes so ofttimes to the well that information technology is broken at last.

•

The final straw breaks the camel's back.

How confident are yous that your respond is right?

20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
10.

In prosperity our friends know us; in adversity nosotros know our friends.

•

Never speak ill of yourself; your friends will always say enough on that subject.

•

A real friend is one who walks in when the residuum of the world walks out.

•

He who whips the dog of a friend whips the friend himself.

•

A skilful friend is worth more money in your pocket.

•

A friend is someone that won't brainstorm to talk backside your back the minute you go out the room.

How confident are y'all that your reply is correct?

20% thirty% twoscore% fifty% 60% 70% lxxx% ninety% 100%

Futurity Life Events Scale

This scale will ask you lot to state what you believe the run a risk of a particular thing happening in future to be. You will besides be asked to signal how sure y'all are about your opinion.

The following statements describe various events that may or may not happen. On a scale between 0 and 100, please indicate how likely each event is to occur. Thus, if you felt that an event was very likely, you should write a number close to 100; if you felt an event was very unlikely, you'd write a number close to 0; and y'all felt an event was nigh equally likely and unlikely, you'd write a number close to 50.

We likewise want yous to indicate how sure you are of your opinion. Please circle 1 of the options next to the sentence after you completed it.

Each question is accompanied by the following rating scale:

Not sure at all Slightly sure Moderately sure Quite certain Very sure
□ □ □ □ □
•

The chances that y'all'll be successful in your called career are about_______ in 100.

•

The probability that a cure for cancer volition be eventually establish is about ________ in 100.

•

The take a chance that if you put some endeavor into mathematical training, you'd be able to do well in mathematics is about _______ in 100.

•

On boilerplate, the chance of passing a driving test at the first attempt is virtually _______ in 100.

•

The chances that the problem of terrorism will be solved are almost _______ in 100.

•

The gamble that if yous put your mind into something, your goals would come truthful is about ______ in 100.

•

The chances that virtual reality will become the main entertainment in the future are about _______ in 100.

•

The probability that the homo race will survive for another thousand years is most _____ in 100.

•

The run a risk that if y'all put your mind and try into solving a problem, yous would succeed is most _______ in 100.

•

The chance that if you open a business it would succeed is nigh _______ in 100.

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Intelligence Testing

Wilma C.M. Resing , in Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, 2005

Kaufman's Intelligence Batteries

In 1983, the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC; American Guidance Service), an intelligence tests for children ages 2.five–12.5 years, was synthetic from a theoretical perspective in which Cattell's stardom between fluid and crystallized intelligence was combined with the Luria'south neuropsychological ideas nearly the importance of simultaneous versus sequential mental processing. Test scores on four intellectual domains tin can exist administered: sequential processing, simultaneous processing, mental processing (which is the first two domains combined), and accomplishment. The scales accept high reliability coefficients. Divide percentile norms have been presented for different indigenous and socioeconomic groups.

Kaufman constructed two other intelligence tests: the Kaufman Boyish and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT; 1993) and the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (G-Flake; 1990). The KAIT was designed for the age range 11–85 years. The exam has a adept reliability. Validity coefficients with WISC-R and WAIS-R tin be interpreted equally high. The K-Fleck was designed as a screening instrument to get a quick estimation of the intelligence level of an examinee. The construction of the test differs from KAIT or One thousand-ABC, consisting of simply two subtests: a vocabulary examination and a nonverbal subtest for inductive reasoning (matrices). The K-BIT is designed for the age range four–90 years and takes only 15–20 minutes.

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Intelligence

G. Lövdén U. Lindenberger , in Encyclopedia of Gerontology (Second Edition), 2007

Two-Component Models of Life Span Changes in Intelligence

Two-component models of life span changes in intelligence posit that evolution of intellectual abilities tin be mapped onto biological versus cultural ensembles of influences (see Figure 1 ). Typical gimmicky examples for two-component models are the distinction between fluid and crystallized intelligence advanced by Raymond B. Cattell and John Horn and the decomposition of cognition into mechanics and pragmatics proposed by Paul Baltes. Two-component models of life span changes in intelligence have a long history dating dorsum to Johann Nicolaus Tetens (1736–1807), a philosopher and psychologist of the enlightenment era who noted that well-trained skills are less probable to turn down with advancing age than the basic abilities underlying their acquisition. Thus, and most chiefly, two-component theories dispute the validity of a unitary general intelligence construct in agreement intellectual development across the life span. Instead, at least two wide, ontogenetically intertwined but separable categories of abilities are needed to describe the basic properties of intellectual development.

Effigy ane. Ii-component models of knowledge. The top section defines the two categories of intellectual abilities and the bottom section illustrates postulated life span trajectories. In very sometime age, the trajectories go less differentiated because the fluid mechanics increasingly constrain the acquisition, expression, and representation of businesslike cognition.

The start collection of intellectual abilities represents measurable outcomes of the influence of the biological component on evolution. It manifests itself in cognitive processes involving extrapolation, reorganization, and transformation of novel data (i.eastward., reasoning) and in basic information processes such every bit working memory (i.e., the ability to maintain information online while manipulating it), processing speed (i.e., the speed with which elementary processing operations can be performed), and cognitive control (i.e., the top-down coordination and command of lower-level processing). Henceforth, these processes are referred to as the fluid mechanics of intelligence.

The second, more disparate category of intellectual abilities refers to procedural and declarative noesis common to a given culture (east.grand., verbal noesis), but also to specialized and sometimes highly idiosyncratic (person-specific) knowledge such as occupational expertise, as well as to knowledge near the meaning and deport of life. Henceforth, these processes are referred to as the crystallized pragmatics of intelligence. For examples of specific abilities and functions related to each of the two components, see Figure 2.

Figure ii. Exemplary functions and abilities in the wide domains of the fluid mechanics and the crystallized pragmatics.

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Intelligence

Douglas Wahlsten , in Genes, Brain Office, and Behavior, 2022

Diversity of Tests

One perplexing fact nigh intelligence tests today is that the experts do not concur on the nature of intelligence or how many kinds of intelligence exist. Spearman and Burt argued that there was but i important kind—general intelligence. Raymond Cattell claimed at that place were two, fluid and crystallized intelligence. Robert Sternberg opts for a 3-part (triarchic) conceptualization. Leon Thurstone believed that seven unlike factors combine to make a person intelligent. Howard Gardner sees show of peradventure eight and mayhap even more kinds of intelligence. Daniel Goleman argues for the existence of emotional and cognitive intelligence. Many of the major theorists devised their own tests to tap the abilities featured in the theories. When the same children take 2 of these tests, in that location is ordinarily a substantial positive correlation between the scores, but it never approaches a perfect correlation. Each test seems to weight the various features of the human mind a trivial differently.

Unlike the profession of psychiatry where there has been a decade-long effort to codify a mutual diagnostic terminology and criteria, embodied in the DSM and ICD, psychology has its own professional person organizations, commonly a chief ane in each country, but no consensus version of an intelligence test to recommend. Instead, scientific psychology has developed an elaborate engineering science for constructing, evaluating, and using psychological tests. The American Psychological Clan provides a number of standards for professional practice and education that are considered mandatory, but the APA website states emphatically that "APA's Testing Office does not maintain, sell, or endorse any tests." The Buros Center at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln publishes a massive Mental Measurements Yearbook (Carlson, Geisinger, & Jonson, 2022) with in-depth reviews of many tests.

After more than 100 years of experience with many kinds of tests, at that place is at least a consensus that several of them are reasonably practiced (Table 15.3). They have been revised several times to correct shortcomings and restandardized to reflect standing changes in the population of people where they will be applied. A full kit including a detailed educational activity manual with norms and scoring sheets tin can be purchased from commercial websites, and several of them are making available much less plush versions that can be administered and scored via the Net.

Table 15.3. Current Intelligence Tests

Test name Edition Standardization sample Ages (years) Time (min)
Bayley Scales of Infant Development three 1409 1–42 months thirty–90
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children 2 3025 3–eighteen 25–55
Kaufman Cursory Intelligence Examination 2 Based on Usa census four–ninety 20
Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test—Individual 2 1500 v–17 25–thirty
Raven'south Colored Progressive Matrices 2003 No norms five–11 15–thirty
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales 5 4800 2–85 50
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children five 2200 6–xvi sixty
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 4 2200 16–90 60–90

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